Asian Worship

The following article briefly describes a variety of worship practices on the Asian continent that have grown out of a desire to be both faithful to the Christian tradition and reflective of local culture. Each of these examples provides a thought-provoking case study regarding the interplay of Christianity and culture, giving readers both a window into worship on the Asian continent and a perspective from which to evaluate their own worship practices. Readers should bear in mind that the Asian churches represent many cultural and denominational traditions and that specific examples should not be taken as representative of worship on the whole continent.

Many Asian liturgies and forms of worship are replicas or imitations of those practiced in their mother churches in Europe and the West. Although there are vast national and denominational differences in liturgical practices in Asia, one may group Asian liturgies into four traditions: the Mar Thomas tradition in South India, the high church liturgical tradition, the free church tradition, and the recent charismatic tradition. The Mar Thomas church is believed to have been established by St. Thomas, one of Jesus' disciples. Their liturgies are, therefore, closer to those of the Orthodox tradition. Both the high church tradition, such as Episcopalians, and the free church tradition, such as Presbyterians, were introduced to Asia from Europe and the West during the last two centuries. The charismatic tradition entered Asia mainly from the United States after the second World War. All liturgies and music from these four traditions have been adopted and translated into Asian languages. Although one may find minor changes in their orders and in their wordings of contents of prayers, the shapes and the theologies of Asian worship are basically the same as those of their mother churches. The current trends of liturgical revival from the West, the new awareness of Asian identity, and the new interest in Asian cultures have contributed greatly to the renewal of worship in some Asian churches today. While local congregations still maintain their traditional Western forms of worship, some seminaries in South India, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Indonesia, to name only a few, have been developing contextual liturgies and music that are gradually gaining acceptance. Ecumenical conferences and international gatherings in Asia over the last decade have also inspired many innovative worship forms. Furthermore, the publication of Sound the Bamboo: CCA Hymnal 1990 will undoubtedly play a significant role in adding dynamic life to Asian worship. This collection, which contains 2280 hymns from 22 Asian countries, is published by the Christian Conference of Asia. One should also mention a group of community churches in Issaan, northeast of Thailand, which have developed native forms of worship that utilize local hymns. An ordinary Sunday worship service, which is conducted in family churches (they do not build churches), consists of the following order:

Prelude (native ensemble of mouth organ, lutes, flutes, and drums)

Call to Worship (in song and dance) Reading of the Scriptures Bible Study or Sermon Prayer of Confession Holy Communion

Apostle's Creed (sung)

Words of Institution (1 Cor 11:23–26) Prayer Distribution of the Elements (sticky rice loaves and rosselle tea) Communion Singing of Communion Hymn and Dancing Prayer of Thanksgiving

Offering (with song and dance)

Prayer of Intercession

Postlude (native ensemble)

Although Asian churches seem to show little creativity in their liturgies, some of them have begun to explore various cultural expressions, symbols, and symbolic acts, and to utilize them in their worship. The following is a brief description of some of these acts in their liturgical contexts. Call to Worship Conch Shells. Conch shells symbolize longevity; they are believed to have magical powers. In many rituals, they are used to call for rain and the spirits of ancestors. They also announce the arrival of a chief or an important person, thus marking the beginning of an important event. It is natural that the Christians in Moluccas, Indonesia use the conch shells on Sunday morning, as a call to invite people to worship God. Greetings and the Sign of Peace Namaskar. Namaskar is an Indian way of greeting, where both palms are folded in front of one's face, followed by a slight bow and by the saying of "?Namaste!?" as a greeting. This posture represents humility, respect, and reverence. It has become a general greeting for Christians, especially as a sign of peace during worship services. Thai Christians have adopted this posture, but with the hands placed near the heart accompanied by a greeting of "?sawatee.?" Since hand shaking and embracing may be too intimate in some Asian culture, the Namaskar sign is very well suited for an Asian context. One can find the same in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. Holding palms together is also a popular sign of reverence among Buddhists, Taoists, and to a certain extent, among Confucians. It is a posture for praying, and for paying homage to gods and respected sages. Christians in Thailand have naturally adopted this sign of reverence in their prayers. Instead of responding "?amen,?" they further bow their head to touch the tip of their fingers, as a sign of "?so be it.?" Hongi. The traditional way of greeting guests for the Maori is to hold each other's arms and rub each other's noses together a few times, while looking into each other's eyes warmly. This tradition has been adopted in the church not only as a common greeting, but as a sign of peace as well. In practicing the Hongi, people go around and greet everyone present at the church. Care is taken that no one in the room has been left out in this friendly ritual. Paying Obeisance to God Parikrama. Some of the churches in South India have created a particular ritual during their worship service to pay obeisance to God. First, they set up a mandala, a place in the sanctuary decorated with a cross, pebbles, vase, and lotus flowers (a sign of purity). The mandala represents the Holy of Holies, thus acknowledging God's presence. Then, the worshipers bring gifts of flowers or any objects of God's creation and walk slowly in a meditative posture around the mandala three times, each time placing one gift on the mandala and doing the sign of Namaskar. This action also symbolizes thanksgiving, praise, and offering of self to God. After this action, the worshipers return to their seats (on the floor) and continue their meditation (cf. ATESEA, Doing Theology with People's Symbols & Images, Occasional Papers no. 8, ed. Yeow Choo Lak and John C. England [Singapore: ATESEA/PTCA, 1989], 21). Penitence Coconut Smashing. The Tamil Indians in Malaysia are mostly Hindus. In their festive processions, some would smash coconuts (symbolizing their hearts) along the road to express their penitence for sins they have committed. Since the hard skin of the coconuts have already been removed, the impact causes the coconut to break into small pieces. The juices and the fragments of white meat splash all over the place. This symbolizes the resolution of the "?sinner,?" as if he or she were saying, "?May I perish like this coconut, if I commit the same sin again!?" Then, they would pick up one or two pieces of the kernel, symbolizing the pure heart or conscience and peacefully go home. Some Christians have adopted this practice in the church. After confession of sin, they smash the coconut; and after the assurance of pardon, they pick up a kernel as a sign of peace of heart. (cf. ATESEA, Occasional Papers no. 8, 19). Here, one can see the inculturation of a pagan ritual to a new Christian context with powerful effect. Sugar Cane Breaking. In Papua New Guinea, a host breaks sugar cane into pieces to share with his guests as a token of welcome and as an assurance of breaking any possible barrier between them. Christians have utilized this custom in their worship. After the confession of sins, they break sugar cane and distribute the pieces to all participants, as a sign of breaking the wall of division, of mutual forgiveness, of total acceptance, and of unity in one Lord. Mat Covering. When a Pacific Islanders want to show their regret for having offended someone, they pick up a large piece of straw mat, go sit in front of this person's house covered with this mat as a sign of sorrow and repentance. They stay that way until the offended person shows forgiveness by coming out to remove the mat and invite the penitent into his or her house, thus restoring their broken relationship and accepting the penitent as a friend again. This sign of penitence has been accepted into the liturgy of Pacific Island Christians. Fern Furling. The Maori of New Zealand have a ritual, which Christians have adopted for their worship service. After the prayer of confession, the congregation walks in line slowly forming the shape of a furling punga frond and silently confessing. When the line forms a crowded circle, the assurance of pardon is pronounced. Then, they turn around, unfurling, as a sign of being relieved from the burden of sin. With new life, they walk faster in joy, sing a song of praise, and return to their seats. Proclaiming God's Word Batu Pamali. Batu pamali are "?sacred stones?" originally placed in front of the Baeleu, the ancestor's house in the Moluccas culture of Indonesia. These stones are living signs of the presence of their ancestors' spirits; they represent promises, as well as taboos and punishment. The people would make a promise in return for a wish, with the stones as their witnesses. If they broke the promise, the stones would punish them through various disasters. In Moluccas, the Christians build the pulpit with stones, upon which is placed the Bible. They pray to God and preach God's Word in front of these stones, with the authority and the confidence that God is their witness. They are responsible for preaching the truth. The Communion Table is also built with these sacred stones. They conduct Holy Communion on these stones, as a powerful witness that God-in-Christ is in their midst making a new covenant. In the same region, pulpits are also constructed in the shape of a large conch, from which God's Word is proclaimed loud and strong and from which the gospel is spread to all. Hindu Symbols Adapted to Christian Preaching. Some priests of the Roman Catholic church in South India have adapted Hindu expressions by wearing an orange robe, sitting in a "?yoga?" posture, with the right hand making the "?ok?" sign, which symbolizes speaking truth in preaching. They even put coconut oil, a lamp, and flowers on a plate as an offering, which is then raised by both hands and circled vertically three times while chanting "?shanti, shanti, shanti?" (peace). All of these are cultural adaptations whose significance can easily be identified and understood by some Indians, although others may be offended. Receiving the Light The Lamp. When a Hindu prays in a temple, the devotee may hold a small copper lamp with three tiers; the upper tier has five wicks that can be lit. Christians in South India have adapted this custom by giving this lamp a new identity. First of all, a pagan symbol on the top of the lamp has been replaced with a cross. The light, which had symbolized enlightenment, wisdom, and knowledge has now been reinterpreted according to Christian faith. Jesus Christ is the Light of the World, without him, there is no life. In a worship service, after listening to the Word, the congregation is invited to come forward to receive the Light and to pray for wisdom in understanding. This is done by feeling the flame and by praying for wisdom in understanding. First, the worshipers feel the flame with both hands and then touch their foreheads to symbolize intellectually receiving God's Word and/or Christ into their heads. A second touch on the eyes symbolizes a prayer for illumination of the mystery, for seeing the Light and understanding the truth. Finally, the third touch is on the heart to indicate the receiving of Christ and his Word into their hearts with emotion, feeling, and love. Again, this is a meaningful inculturation of an existing rite into a Christian rite. The worship service in traditional Protestant churches tend to put too much emphasis on passive cerebral understanding of the Word. But by encouraging worshipers to come forward and to touch and feel the warmth of the flame, as though they are touching Christ and his Word, faith comes alive. Many, who have participated in this symbolic act in some ecumenical service, have witnessed this uniquely uplifting experience. Holy Communion Coconut Meat and Juice. Coconuts are probably the most popular and most important subsistence for people in Southeast Asia and the Pacific regions. Millions of people rely on the coconut and its products for a living. The Filipinos have made use of the coconut in their Communion service. One can easily understand the implication of this symbolic act within the Holy Communion service: one coconut, being broken, with meat and juice coming from the coconut to nourish the people. Traditional elements for Holy Communion, bread and wine, were originally an integral part of the Jewish, as well as the Western meal. Since neither of these are part of the Asian meal, coconuts become meaningful substitutes for bread and wine. Rice Loaves and Roselle Tea. Sticky rice is the most important staple food for the agrarian people in northeastern Thailand. The Christians, therefore, use sticky rice baked in the shape of a loaf to be broken and shared during their Communion in the house church. They also drink a red-colored tea made of rosselle leaves to represent the blood of Christ. The rosselle juice is a kind of herbal tea, which is believed to have a healing effect for the body. Thus in the Communion service, it signifies spiritual healing as well. During or after the partaking of the elements, the communicants may stand up and dance freely to show their joy and thanksgiving for the spiritual food and Christ's salvation. This cultural adaptation into the eucharistic liturgy is so meaningful and powerful to the Issaan people that the church has grown astonishingly in the region. Rice Cakes. Rice is the most important staple food. Life without rice is unimaginable in Asia. The famous Korean poet, Kim Chi Ha, considers a community eating rice together at a table as a spiritual experience. Japanese theologian, Takenaka Masao, writes that God is rice rather than God is bread, in the sense that rice is the symbol of life in Asia, just as bread is the symbol of life for in the West (ATESEA, Doing Theology with Cultures of Asia, Occasional Papers no. 6, ed. Yeow Choo Lak and John C. England [Singapore: ATESEA/PTCA, 1988], 65). So on various occasions, Asian Christians in Taiwan, Korea, the Philippines, etc. have used rice crackers or rice cakes for Communion with powerful effect. Sweet Potatoes and Rice Wine or Oolong Tea. Sweet potatoes used to be the main staple food for the poor in Taiwan. The physical shape of the island also resembles that of a sweet potato. Furthermore, recent political oppression and religious persecution have given rise to a sense of pride and self-identity in Taiwanese Christians. Hence these Christians use the sweet potatoes, as a symbol of their faith. A recent poem uplifting such a Taiwanese spirit reads:

Sweet potatoes, fearless about being rotten beneath the earth,

only yearn for the sprouting of leaves and branches for generation after generation.

The efforts of spiritual reconstruction and contextualization of theology and liturgy have inspired Christians to use sweet potatoes as the "?bread?" for Communion: a baked whole potato is broken into pieces for people to share. The meaning of sacrifice, as implied in the poem above, reflects the words of Christ, "?unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies … it bears much fruit?" (John 12:24). Thus, the potato is suitable for taking the place of "?bread.?" Since grape wine is foreign to this culture (although imported grape wine is available), rice wine, a popular liquor for feasts as well as general cooking, or oolong tea, the best and most popular brand of Taiwanese tea, are served as the "?cup?" for Holy Communion. Thus both "?bread?" and "?wine,?" being native elements closely related to daily life, become intimate and meaningful celebrations of the Lord's Supper within the Taiwanese culture. Chicken Meat. It is almost unthinkable to substitute chicken for bread in Communion. But Indonesian Christians have used it with the following rationale: (1) Chicken is the most popular meat for general consumption. (2) No matter how beautiful chickens are, they only live for people, sacrificing themselves to nourish human beings. (3) A rooster reminds us of the weakness in human nature and our possible denial of Christ as did Peter. (4) Chickens remind us of God's love as shown in Jesus' lamentation for Jerusalem: "?how often would I have gathered your children together as a hen gathers her brood under her wings … ?" (Matt. 23:37). Furthermore, chewing the chicken during Holy Communion makes people savor its taste, as if they are actually making the effort to digest the body of Christ, not just letting the "?bread?" melt in the mouth. The above experiments may have gone far from Western traditions. It is hard to know how well they will be accepted into the official liturgy of any mainline Protestant church. They, nonetheless, represent the conscious effort of some Asian Christians to search for ways of interpreting their faith and for forms to worship God. Some of these cultural perspectives may give us insight and encourage us to seek for meaningful Christian expressions in our own contexts.