Historical Origins And Development Of Ordination In The West

In the New Testament, leaders were set apart for ministry by the laying on of hands accompanied by prayer. Although elaborate ceremonies emerged that were later eliminated by the Protestant Reformers, laying on of hands with a prayer for consecration remained a constant characteristic of ordination.

Ordination in the New Testament Comparatively little is said in the New Testament about the rites by which the leaders of the church were commissioned for their ministry. This is not surprising, since ministry in the New Testament period was still undergoing development and change. We find references to the Twelve and to the apostles in the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–5; Mark 3:14–19; Luke 6:13), and to apostles, prophets, and teachers in 1 Corinthians 12:28. Acts and the Epistles speak of leaders (Heb. 13:7), presbyters, or elders (presbuteroi, 1 Pet. 5:1; James 5:14; Acts 11:30), teachers (Gal. 6:6), overseers, i.e., bishops (episcopoi, Acts 20:17, 28; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:5ff), and ministers (diakonoi, Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:1ff). These various titles represent charismatic ministries and offices common in the Pauline communities, as well as more institutionalized forms of office which seem to have existed in the Jerusalem community. A common characteristic of these offices or ministries is that the apostles and their successors appointed individuals to fill them (see Titus 1:5) and that they originated from the apostles or were associated with them (see Acts 6:1ff; 11:30; 14:23). In Acts, appointment to an office or ministry is by the imposition of hands (epithesis ton cheiron) and through an associated confirmation by the Holy Spirit (Acts 13:2; 20:28). In the Pastoral Epistles, imposition of hands is also mentioned as a means of recognizing a ministry exercised prophetically (1 Tim. 4:14) or of appointing a person to a ministry or office (2 Tim. 1:6). The actual rites of ordination mentioned in Acts and the epistles of Paul contain no liturgical texts and the barest of descriptions. In Acts 6:1–6, we are told of the selection of seven men to serve the needs of the widows of the Hellenists in Jerusalem. They are selected by the community and presented to the apostles, who pray over them and lay hands on them. Acts 13:2–3 describes how Paul and Barnabas were set apart for their ministry: "?Then, completing their fasting and prayer, they laid hands on them and sent them off.?" Paul and Barnabas, during their first missionary journey, appointed presbyters in each church and "?with prayer and fasting, commended them to the Lord in whom they had put their faith?" (Acts. 14:23). This practice of praying over and laying hands on those to be appointed as ministers is also alluded to in the two letters to Timothy (1 Tim. 4:14; 5:22; 2 Tim. 1:6; 4:1–8). This pattern formed the core of the ordination rites of the church as they were developed and elaborated over the centuries. Ordination in the Early Church The most ancient ordination rite of the church is that of Hippolytus of Rome (c. 225), and is contained in his Apostolic Tradition. Hippolytus provides us not only with a description of the ordination of a bishop, but also with ordination prayers for bishops, presbyters, and deacons. The rubrics contained in the Apostolic Tradition and the prayers, especially that for the ordination of a bishop, have had a great influence on ordination rites in both the Eastern and the Western churches. The ordination prayer of Hippolytus for a bishop is presently being used by the Episcopal and Roman Catholic churches in their revised ordination rites. The ordination rite of Hippolytus takes place on a Sunday, in the context of the celebration of the Eucharist. The bishop is chosen by the people, and those bishops who are present give their consent. The bishops silently lay hands on the bishop-elect, while the members of the presbyterate stand by in silence. One of the bishops, in the name of all, says the prayer of ordination while continuing to lay hands on the bishop-elect for the episcopacy. The prayer is addressed to the "?God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ?" and recalls that God has established ministers for the church. A brief epiklesis (invocation of the Holy Spirit) follows which asks God to:

Pour forth now that power which is from you, of the princely Spirit which you granted through your beloved Son Jesus Christ to your holy apostles, who established the church in every place as your sanctuary, to the unceasing glory and praise of your name.

The prayer continues with intercessions for the new bishop. The bishop is to feed the flock and exercise a blameless high priesthood by unceasingly praying and offering the holy gifts of the church. The bishop is to forgive sins. All this is done through the servant/child Jesus Christ. After the ordination prayer, all exchange the kiss of peace with the new bishop, and the bishop proceeds to receive the offerings of the people from the deacons and then proclaims the eucharistic prayer.

Similar prayers are provided for the ordination of presbyters or deacons. The prayer for presbyters indicates that the role of the presbyter is to assist the bishop in the governance of the church. Hippolytus notes that "?When, moreover, a presbyter is ordained, let the bishop lay his hand on his head, while the presbyters also touch him …?" Hipplytus continues by stating that when a deacon is ordained, only the bishop lays hands on the candidate for the deacon's office:

For he is not ordained for the priesthood, but for serving the bishop, … For he is not a member of the council of the clergy, but attends to responsibilities and makes known what is necessary to the bishop; not receiving the common spirit of the presbyter .… Wherefore, let the bishop alone make him a deacon; on a presbyter, however, the presbyters as well should also lay on their hands, because of the common and like spirit of the clergy. For the presbyter has only this power to receive; he does not on the other hand have power to give. Because of this, he does not ordain clergy; he rather is to put his seal on the ordination of a presbyter while the bishop ordains.

The fifth-century Statuta ecclesiae antiqua, which were probably written in Gaul, substantially reproduces the directions of Hippolytus in canons 2, 3, and 4. All three texts speak of the imposition of hands as the central act. All bishops present impose hands on a new bishop; the bishop and presbyters present lay hands on the new presbyter; and the bishop alone lays hands on the deacon. Eventually these texts became rubrics that were prefixed to the ordination rites of the medieval pontificals (books of rites used by bishops). The actual terminology used for ordination in the early church changes over a period of time. The pagan term for election by a show of hands, cheirotonein, is in the New Testament and in early Christian writings. This term is eventually replaced by the term cheirepithesia which refers to the imposition of hands. By the fourth-century, a distinction is made between the imposition of hands performed by a priest, cheirothetei, and ordination which was performed by the bishop, cheirotonei. Thus the emphasis changes from raising the hand to elect the candidate for an office to that of imposing or laying hands on the one elected to the office of ministry. This distinction between election and ordination is manifested in the later ordination rites, which either presume a previous election of the candidate or have a brief rite of election by the bishop with the consent of the people at the beginning of the rite. Ordination Rites of the Roman Sacramentaries and Ordines In the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, the ordination rites are found in the ancient sacramentaries (books containing the prayers of the ministers) of the Roman church and the church in Gaul as well as in the collections of rubrics known as the Ordines Romani. The Sacramentary of Verona (Sacramentarium Veronense), also known as the Leonine Sacramentary (fifth to sixth centuries), contains the texts of the ordination prayers for bishops, priests, and deacons. As is common in the early liturgical books, no rubrics are provided, and it is necessary to go to the Ordines Romani, 34–40, for the rubrics. The ordination of the bishop of Rome took place before the Gloria, at the opening of the Mass, while the ordination of presbyters and deacons occurred between the Epistle and Gospel in the first part of the Mass. The ordination of the bishop begins with two collects, whereas the rites for presbyters and deacons have an invitatory and collect, which originally probably introduced and concluded the litany of the saints. By the seventh to eighth centuries, the collect and invitatory followed the litany. The ordination prayer followed the collect. The ordination prayers, which are totally unrelated to those of Hippolytus, are filled with allusions to the ministry of the high priests, the priests and Levites of the Old Testament. In a characteristic Roman fashion, they are preoccupied with the cursus honorum or progression of honor from a lesser dignity to a greater one. There is no reference to the laying on of hands in the Verona Sacramentary itself, and, in fact, the Ordines Romani are not always clear about the matter. They do mention that the book of the Gospels was held over the head of the one being ordained bishop of Rome, but nothing is said about the bishops present imposing hands on the bishop-elect's head. When the pope ordained bishops, the pope alone laid hands on them. Nevertheless, it is probably safe to assume that the imposition of hands took place at Rome during the ordination prayer for deacons and presbyters. In this early period of the Roman ordination rites, the candidates were clothed in the vestments of their order before they were presented for ordination. After their ordination, deacons and presbyters took their places with their fellow deacons and presbyters for the remainder of the liturgy. As the Roman liturgy spread north into Gaul, it began to be intermixed with rites and prayers taken from this region. The resulting hybrid rite eventually returned to Rome and affected the subsequent Roman liturgical books. The Gelasian Sacramentary and the Missale Francorum reflect this mixed form of the Roman ordination rites. In addition to the Roman prayers, these books contain prayers of Gallican origin. The Gallican ordination rites of the fifth or sixth century probably consisted of an admonition to the faithful and the clergy, a bidding or invitatory, and the prayer of consecration. These consecration prayers are more centered on Christ and on the notions of ministry in the New Testament rather than those of the Roman tradition. In the case of the presbyter, an anointing of the hands followed the ordination prayer. In the Missale Francorum and the Gelasian Sacramentary, the Roman prayers are followed by the Gallican texts so that there is a doubling of ordination rites. A choice was probably made at first between the Roman texts and the Gallican texts, but eventually both were recited, one set after the other. The anointing of the hands of the priest seems to have come from the Celtic church, and then, to have been passed on to the church in Gaul. It was not until after the ninth century that this practice was accepted by the Roman church. The eighth to tenth century English ordination rites have an anointing of the deacon's hands and an anointing of both the hands and head of the presbyter. Medieval Ordination Rites By the end of the ninth century, the imposition of hands occurred in silence before the prayer of ordination, rather than during it. In some manuscripts the rubrics infer that the imposition of hands also continued throughout the ordination prayers. A basic structure had evolved by the tenth century, in which the Roman and Gallican prayers were separated from each other by the vesting of the newly ordained minister and the presentation of symbols or instruments of office. Accordingly, the pastoral staff and ring were given to the bishop; the chalice and paten were given to the presbyter; and the book of the Gospels were given to the deacon. The incorporation of the presentations into the ordination rites for bishops, presbyters, and deacons began a change that would eventually lead theologians and bishops to regard them as the essential act of ordination, rather than the imposition of hands before or during the ordination prayer. The thirteenth-century ordination rites were elaborated in a more theatrical manner than hitherto. The ordination rites for a bishop began with a formal presentation of the candidate, an examination, and the profession of faith. After the gradual (the Psalm after the Epistle), there was an invitation to prayer followed by the litany of the saints, the imposition of the Gospels on the head of the bishop-elect, and the imposition of hands by the consecrating and co-consecrating bishops with the words "?accipe spiritum sanctum?" (receive the Holy Spirit). The ordination prayer was interrupted by the singing of the hymn "?Veni Creator?" while the head of the bishop-elect was anointed. The ordination prayer then continued. After the prayer, the hands of the new bishop were anointed, and the new bishop was presented with the pastoral staff, ring, and book of the Gospels. The ordination rite proper concluded with the kiss of peace. In the rite for the ordination of a presbyter, a whole new series of rites was added. As in the rite for the ordination of a bishop, there was a presentation which was followed by the election of the new priest at the beginning of the rite. The ordination prayer was preceded by the imposition of hands and followed by the vesting of the new priest. The new priest's hands were anointed, and the new priest was then presented with the chalice and paten. A second imposition of hands took place after Communion and the recitation of the creed. This imposition of hands was accompanied by an imperative formula, accipe spiritum sanctum (receive the Holy Spirit), which had previously been used in various places in connection with the first imposition of hands. The use of such a formula is a reflection of the medieval concept that the forms for the sacraments should be declarations rather than prayers. Following the imposition of hands, the back of the chasuble was lowered (which hitherto had been pinned up). The new presbyter then made a promise of obedience, received the kiss of peace, and was admonished concerning the manner of celebrating Mass. The bishop concluded the rite by giving the newly ordained priest a penance (usually the recitation of a series of Psalms) and the final blessing. In a sense, these post-Communion rites form a second ordination rite at the end of Mass. The most significant change in the rite for the ordination of a deacon was the division of the ordination prayer into two parts by the imposition of hands and a formula beginning, "?accipe …?" ("?receive …?"). After the new deacon was vested in a stole and a dalmatic, the new deacon was presented with the book of the Gospels. The Gallican ordination prayer was used to conclude the rite. In the thirteenth century, the practice of the newly ordained bishop concelebrating with the consecrating bishop became common. A form of concelebration is also found in the rite for the ordination for presbyters. The newly ordained priests were invited to come near the altar, and from the offertory on, they read all the prayers of the Mass in a low voice, as if they were celebrating individually. Both newly ordained bishops and priests received Communion from the presiding bishop. Reformation Ordination Rites At the time of the Reformation, the continental Reformers stripped away all that they considered to be unbiblical in the ordination rites. As a result, the rites consisted, with local variations, of a reading from Scripture, a long admonition, the laying on of hands with an imperative formula, and a prayer for the ministry of the church. Unfortunately, the epicletic and eucharistic nature of the ordination prayers of consecration were lost and replaced by a questionable medieval concept of ordination using a formula rather than a prayer. Vesting, anointing, and the presentation of symbols of office generally disappeared, with the exception of the giving of a Bible to the one being ordained. In England, the ordination rites were also revised. Much of the traditional structure of the rite was retained, but duplications were omitted, as were anointings and the presentation of vestments. The giving of the Bible or New Testament was retained, but after the first revision, the presentation of the chalice and paten was omitted. The Anglican rites also reflected the medieval preoccupation with the use of a formula for the imposition of hands, and the ordination prayer became a general prayer for the ministry of the church. A few "?New-Testament-only?" groups, e.g., the Plymouth Brethren, reject the idea of set-apart ministry as a post–New Testament innovation and hence an illegitimate practice. Other groups, e.g., the medieval Waldenses, the sixteenth-century Anabaptists (with their Mennonite, Amish, and Hutterite descendants), and some evangelical, independent Bible churches and Pentecostal groups claim to reject any distinction between clergy and laity, but in practice do view their ministers and leaders as somehow distinct from non-ministerial laity. They have gradually developed the equivalent of ordination ceremonies, even if they lack a theology to undergird them. Contemporary Ordination Rites The rites for the ordination of bishops, presbyters, and deacons of the Roman Catholic church were revised in 1968. In the revised rites, the imposition of hands by the bishop and the ordination prayer of consecration are clearly the central features. All three ordination rites begin with the celebration of the liturgy of the Word of the Eucharist. The ordination rites take place after the Gospel. The candidates for the diaconate and presbyterate are presented to the bishop, and elected by the bishop. The people give their consent. The rite for the ordination of a bishop begins with the hymn "?Veni Creator,?" which is followed by the presentation of the bishop-elect and the reading of the apostolic mandate. All three rites then follow with the homily and the examination of the candidate. The examination is followed in the rites for deacons and presbyters by a promise of obedience to the bishop and the bishop's successors. All three rites continue with an invitation to prayer, the litany, and a concluding prayer. The laying on of hands then takes place in silence. The presbyters join the bishop in imposing hands on candidates for the presbyterate, and all bishops present lay hands on the bishop-elect. In each rite, the ordination prayer of consecration is then sung or recited. After the prayer, the new bishop's head is anointed with chrism. Deacons and presbyters are vested by members of their new order with the dalmatic and stole (for deacons) or the chasuble and stole (for presbyters). A new bishop is then presented with the book of the Gospels, ring, miter, and pastoral staff. New presbyters have their hands anointed with chrism and are presented with the offerings (bread on the paten and wine and water in the chalice), which have been brought to the bishop by the faithful. A deacon is given the book of the Gospels by the bishop. The new bishop is seated in the episcopal chair, if the bishop is ordained in the cathedral in which the bishop will serve. The ordination rites proper end with the kiss of peace given to the new minister by the bishop and other members of the diaconate, presbyterate, or episcopate. At the ordination of a bishop, the new bishop is led through the congregation, after the post-Communion prayer while the "?Te Deum?" or another similar hymn is sung, in order to bless the people. A new bishop who is ordained in the new bishop's own cathedral takes over the presidency of the Eucharist; otherwise the bishop takes the first place among the concelebrants. New presbyters concelebrate with the bishop, and new deacons carry out their diaconal functions during the liturgy of the Eucharist. An example of the revised rite of the Episcopal church, for the ordination of priests, contained in The Book of Common Prayer (1979), is given below in "?A Liturgy for Episcopal Ordination.?" This liturgy shares many features in common with the revised Roman rites. The United Methodist Church published its revised ordination rites in The United Methodist Book of Worship (1992). The new rites are very similar to those of the Episcopal church. In the rite for the ordination of elders, the presentation of the candidates takes place at the beginning of the liturgy. After the liturgy of the Word, there is an address on the office and functions of the order being conferred, which leads into an examination of the candidate. This is followed by an invitation to prayer and the singing of a hymn to the Holy Spirit. The laying on of hands takes place during the ordination prayer which follows the hymn. The prayer itself is a reworking of the Episcopal ordination prayer. Immediately after the prayer, a Bible is presented to the new elder, and, if desired, a stole and/or chalice and paten may be given to each new elder. The orders of ministers entering the ministry of the United Methodist Church from another denomination may be recognized. Unlike the Roman and Episcopal rites, provision is made for the ordination to conclude without the celebration of the Lord's Supper. However, the rite as presented presumes that the Eucharist will normally be a part of the service. The new elders remain with the bishop and assist him or her during the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The Roman, Episcopal, and United Methodist rites reflect a return to the more ancient traditions of the undivided church. A good example of this is the use in all three churches of Hippolytus' prayer of consecration for a bishop. This prayer has replaced the traditional texts formerly used in these churches. All these new ordination rites reflect the common pattern that has emerged as a result of the contemporary liturgical renewal. In these new ordination rites, the central portion of the liturgy for ordination follows the proclamation of the Word of God and leads into the liturgy of the Eucharist. The laying on of hands and the prayer of consecration take their rightful place as the principal rites. The rites of vesting and presentation of symbols of office clearly take a second place.