The biblical doctrine of Creation has important implications for the use of the fine arts in worship, as does the doctrine of the Incarnation. The scriptural view of humankind as created in God's image, the concept of inspiration, and the biblical understanding of the covenant also contribute their perspective on the fine arts. The arts are uniquely capable of expressing the nonrational element in the worship experience.
Renewal of Interest in the Arts
Art, as a human activity, is a reflection of the activity of the Creator. Worship is a response to the Creator's revelation of himself. It is understandable that throughout history, and in all cultures and religious traditions, worship and the arts have been allied. The closeness of this alliance, however, has varied from era to era and community to community. In the centuries following the demise of the Roman Empire it was Christendom that supplied the framework holding European civilization together; during the Middle Ages, the arts were placed almost completely at the disposal of the church. The Renaissance was marked by a recovery of the principles and preoccupations of classic, pre-Christian art, and in the following centuries much of the church (the Protestant wing in particular) reacted to the secularization of the fine arts by virtually turning its back on them, concentrating on the spoken word and the life of piety. As a result, art became separated from faith, and worship often became a barren and colorless affair.
More recently, Christian churches have begun to move back toward the appropriation of the arts in the service of God, especially in worship. But unless renewed appreciation for the fine arts is grounded in a clear understanding of their foundation and function within the biblical perspective, the church faces two dangers. The first is that this recovery of the arts is likely to be a passing phenomenon, soon abandoned for the next stimulating trend. The second is that artistic activity within the Christian community will become art for its own sake, inadequately anchored in the principles of the gospel, as has often been the case in the past. The biblical perspective offers an approach to the philosophy of the fine arts as vehicles for the worship of God.
Art and the Creation
A biblical philosophy of the arts may take its departure from the scriptural understanding of the creative activity of God. In the biblical perspective, the Creation is the result of the initiative of God in bringing order out of chaos, "dividing" light from darkness, the land from the waters (Gen. 1:3–8). The Genesis account of Creation proceeds from the appearance of basic energy ("light") to formless substance ("the waters"), to the separation of the heavens and earth, then to terra firma with its vegetation, followed by aquatic animal life, and ending with the appearance of land animals and, finally, humankind. The created universe is coherent and planned, exhibiting the design of its Maker: "the heavens declare the glory of God" (Ps. 9:1).
By producing new forms, new artifacts, new expressions that communicate truth in fresh ways, artists function as "creators," in finite measure, to the glory of the infinite Creator. Essentially, the work of the artist is to bring about new patterns of significance by reshaping the gifts given by God in creation. This means, above all, producing images and patterns of order, beauty, and meaning. Many of the greatest works of art in the world—the Sistine Chapel, Dürer's Praying Hands, Bach's B-minor Mass, Dante's Divine Comedy—do precisely this, and elevate those who contemplate them.
Human art, however, is subject to the condition in which the human race exists, and that entails creativity within the condition of fallenness. Consequently, to communicate truth in art may mean producing accurate images of our sin, our dysfunction, our brokenness. The literary art of the Bible does not compromise on this score; it portrays humans as they are, warts and all. Similarly, Scripture vividly portrays human doubt and human protest against evil in the world. Art, then, may serve a positive function even when it shows us what is wrong in the world, and by implication points to what is right. Because of its power, however, art can also be turned to purposes that foster and justify evil when it becomes pornography or the glorification of violence or propaganda.
The creative impulse, then, is one of the greatest natural gifts of God to humanity, and has everything to do with being created in the image of God. His power can be turned to the greatest possible good when, as heirs of Adam, human beings name their world in order to offer it back up to God in praise and adoration.
Art and the Celebration of Creation
Artistic activity can be a celebration of God's creation, drawing on motifs and patterns found in the created order. The description of the decorative work of Solomon's temple (1 Kings 6–7) contains examples of such borrowing. The interior walls, of cedar overlaid with gold, were engraved with gourds, open flowers, palm trees, and cherubim. In the inner sanctuary stood two cherubim, carved from olive wood and covered with gold; here was placed the ark of the covenant, which had been made along with the Mosaic tabernacle (Exod. 25:10–22) and also had two cherubim of hammered gold on its cover. The lampstands were probably similar to that of the tabernacle, which was of hammered gold with cups shaped like almond blossoms (Exod. 25:31–36). Similar designs were found on the doors to the inner and outer sanctuaries, and the linen veil of the inner sanctuary, like that of the tabernacle, had cherubim worked into it (2 Chron. 3:14).
Framing the great outer door of the temple were two freestanding columns; the Bible does not ascribe any function to them, so we must assume they were purely decorative, adding to the august dignity of the house of the Lord. Their bronze capitals were "in the shape of lilies" (1 Kings 7:19), set over pomegranates, and festooned with chainwork. Next to the temple stood the bronze "sea," a water reservoir set upon four rows of three oxen, each facing one of the cardinal directions; under the edge of the sea, which was "like the rim of a cup, like a lily blossom" (1 Kings 7:26), was a border of gourds. The lavers, where the priests washed, stood on frames decorated with lions, oxen, and cherubim. The vestments of the high priest, as described in the directions for the construction of the tabernacle, which preceded the temple (Exod. 28), included the breastpiece decorated with twelve precious gems and the robe with a hem of golden bells alternating with blue, purple, and scarlet pomegranates.
In this way the visual imagery of the Solomonic sanctuary replicated motifs from the created order of plant and animal life. But these motifs are not actually flowers, lions, trees, or pomegranates but representations of them: blossoms engraved in gold, bulls cast in bronze, pomegranates colored blue. In other words, art is artificial, the result of the application of a humanly conceived design and human skills to materials found in the "natural" state.
Of special interest are the cherubim in the inner sanctuary, or "Holy of Holies," and on the ark of the covenant. The Bible does not describe the appearance of these symbols. Their function, however, was to represent the throne of the Lord of Hosts, Yahveh tz?va'ot, the name of the Lord as Israel's King and leader in battle; in several places he is referred to as dwelling "above" or "between the cherubim" (Exod. 25:22; 1 Sam. 4:4; Pss. 80:1; 99:1; Isa. 37:16). Archaeology has revealed that the thrones of ancient rulers, such as the Assyrian kings of Nineveh, were often flanked by guardian figures in the form of a winged creature with the head of a man and a body with features of the lion and the ox. This composite motif resembles the four "living creatures" of Ezekiel's vision and the Revelation to John, and we note that there were actually four cherubim in the temple in addition to those carved on the walls and doors. If the biblical cherubim resembled the "living creatures," we see in them a masterful artistic transformation of imagery found in animate life, centrally placed within the symbolism of the house of God.
Biblical worship thus may incorporate artistic motifs drawn from a creation God pronounced to be "very good" (Gen. 1:31; the Hebrew word can have the sense of "beautiful"). The appropriate use of such imagery can be an affirmation of the supreme authority of God the Creator, in the conviction that "the earth is the Lord's and everything in it" (Ps. 24:1). On the other hand, when the motivation to glorify the Lord is lacking, such usage can be a worship and glorification of "the creature rather than the Creator" (Rom. 1:25 nasb). This is why the bronze serpent, a work of art created by Moses at the Lord's command (Num. 21:8–9), eventually had to be destroyed in a reform of King Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:4), in the same manner as all idols and images originating in polytheistic worship outside God's covenant.
Art and the Incarnation
Most attempts to shape a Christian philosophy of the arts have centered around the doctrine of the Incarnation. The biblical proclamation that "the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us" (John 1:14) is viewed as an affirmation that humanity, along with the physical world in which people live, is made sacred in virtue of God's participation within it. Christ's emptying of himself, to be "made in human likeness" (Phil. 2:7) and to be subject to the conditions of human existence in an imperfect world, is understood to provide a basis for the Christian's approach to the work even of non-Christian artists. One may see in Christ, as "the image of the invisible God" (Col. 1:15), the supreme artistic expression of the Creator; God's action in Christ to re-create the world through redemption may be understood as a basis for the artistic work of re-creation. The idea that in Christ God has become one with his creation, in order to redeem it for re-creation through human artistic activity, is a theological interpretation of biblical data. Consequently, the fuller articulation of an incarnation-based philosophy of the arts has not been the work of biblical expositors but of aesthetic theorists and theologians working with the materials of historic Christian theology.
The Image of God and the Arts
In both ancient mythological religions and modern evolutionary philosophy, humankind is an accidental appearance on the earth. In ancient Mesopotamian myths, for example, the creation of man is a by-product of the cosmic struggle between competing deities. The evolutionary philosophy that underlies the modern view of man is not far removed from that of ancient mythology, for it sees the origin of humankind as the result of the operation of blind, impersonal forces of time and chance. By contrast, the Bible represents humankind as the deliberate creation of God, who made humans, male and female, in his own image (Gen. 1:27).
The concept of humankind as created in God's image has several implications for human artistic activity. First, it suggests that there is no need to fashion an artistic image of the deity; humankind is already that representation—the handiwork of the Creator who has provided his own visual reminder of his presence in, and ownership of, the earth. As an ancient king would erect an image of himself at the boundaries of his territory to signify the extent of his kingdom, so God has placed humankind on the earth as a sign of his dominion. The scriptural prohibition of any kind of molten or sculpted image of Yahweh, which stands at the head of the laws of the covenant (Exod. 20:4; 34:17), gives statutory expression to this principle.
Second, as the representative of the Creator, humankind is charged with the management of the earth and the life that fills it (Gen. 1:28–30; 2:15). Human beings fulfill this role in exercising their capacity for making. To use J.R.R. Tolkien's word, they become sub-creators; as sub-creators, "we make in our measure and in our derivative mode because we are made: and not only made, but made in the image and likeness of a Maker ("On Fairie Stories," in Tree and Leaf [Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964], pp. 54–55). To create a work of art, as a reflection of God's creative activity, is to bring together seemingly unrelated elements into a new design that does not occur in nature.
Third, as beings made in the image of God, people find their deepest selves through worship, the expression of communion and covenant with their Maker. The artistic effort should not be motivated by "self-expression" in worship but by the desire to glorify the Lord and express longing for him.
Inspiration in the Fine Arts
The Bible recognizes general revelation, the idea that God can be known in some measure to all people through his creation; indeed, Paul asserts that this general revelation renders people without excuse for failing to acknowledge God or give thanks to him (Rom. 1:18–21). The understanding of God's specific character and historic purposes, however, can be known only by revelation at his initiative; it cannot be known in the first instance by visual or auditory perception or by the imagination of human intellect (Isa. 64:4; 1 Cor. 2:9) but must be revealed "through the Spirit," the breath or life of God directly impacting the soul.
In Scripture, activity associated with the fine arts is connected with divine inspiration. In the case of visual arts, Bezalel, the chief artisan of the Mosaic tabernacle, is introduced as a man "filled with the Spirit of God" (Exod. 31:1–3). The association of the Spirit of God with musical activity is more pronounced. Samuel, having anointed Saul king, tells him that he will encounter a band of prophets coming down from the sanctuary, prophesying to the accompaniment of musical instruments; the Spirit of God will come upon him, and he himself will prophesy, being "changed into a different person" (1 Sam. 10:5–6). Prophetic activity is carried out under the direction and impulse of the Spirit of God, and in the Bible, prophecy and music are closely allied. David appointed the Levitical musicians to "prophesy" in the praise and thanksgiving of worship before the ark (1 Chron. 25:1–7). Elisha called for a player on the lyre in order to prophesy to the kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom (2 Kings 3:13–15). The prophetic books of Scripture are filled with song, and the public regarded Ezekiel more as a musician than as a prophet, to his consternation (Ezek. 33:32). In early Christian worship, constant thanksgiving with "psalms, hymns and spiritual songs" is a direct result of being "filled with the Spirit" (Eph. 5:18–20). Rejoicing, whether in music, spoken praise, or choreography, can be at the impulse of the Holy Spirit. The gospel records that Jesus was "full of joy through the Holy Spirit" when the seventy reported the results of their preaching of the kingdom of God; the Greek word can indicate leaping or dancing (Luke 10:21).
Of paramount importance is the Spirit's direction in literary activity; the doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture is well developed and needs no elaboration here. The role of the Spirit of God in the formation of prophetic literature is, of course, especially evident; prophecy took shape as "men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit" (2 Pet. 1:21). A hint of the impulse of the Spirit in psalmic poetry may be seen in the poet's words, "My heart is stirred by a noble theme.… my tongue is the pen of a skillful writer" (Ps. 45:1). In a similar vein, the young man Elihu claims a spiritual impetus for his poetic contribution to the debate between Job and his friends (Job 32:6–22). Some of the great word pictures of Scripture are presented in the context of the special movement of the Spirit upon the author. Ezekiel's spectacular vision of the four living creatures supporting the throne of the glorious Lord was the occasion of the Spirit's coming upon him (Ezek. 1:1–2:2), and John the Revelator was "in the Spirit on the Lord's day" (Rev. 1:10, nasb) when he was granted the vision of the radiant, living Son of man.
In scriptural perspective, therefore, one may speak of an inspired work of art, particularly one that is rendered in the service of God. Of course, not all visual, musical, choreographic, or literary materials, even if used in a worship context, are inspired in the biblical sense; while they may have been executed with great skill, they may not have the stamp of the Spirit of God as vehicles of the holy. Further, an artistic creation may indeed be "inspired" but not with the Spirit of God; in the spiritual warfare of the unseen realm, so real to biblical people but a closed book for modern rationalistic minds, other dark powers make their influence known through the work of practitioners of the fine arts. The Christian worshiper uses a biblically informed discretion in judging any artistic creation to be "inspired."
Worship Arts and the Covenant
As the framework of God's relationship with his people, the biblical covenant finds expression in the worship arts. Worship celebrates the distinctive themes of the covenant: the kingship of the Lord; his leadership and protection in warfare; his covenant promises and the story of his great deeds of deliverance; his laws and precepts, in the observance of which the worshiper maintains his place in the covenant; and his judgments against violation of the relationship, as expressed in prophetic psalm or song uttered during the assemblies of the people.
The covenant is corporate; it is a relationship between the Lord and the entire worshiping community. In revealing his covenant name to Moses, Yahweh related it to his involvement in the history of a people, the ancestors of Israel: "The Lord, the God of your fathers—the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob" (Exod. 3:14–15). Although the covenant is promised, mediated, and renewed through individual leaders—patriarchs, prophets, kings—it is made with all the people, a people consecrated to the Lord: "The Lord your God has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth to be his people, his treasured possession" (Deut. 7:6). In the prayer and hymnody of covenant worship, the speaker represents the entire community, not himself as an individual. This accounts for the prominent place given to the king, as the nation's representative, in the prayer and praise of the Psalms and in the erection and dedication of the temple. It accounts for the role of the prophet as intercessor for the people in the face of impending judgment (Amos 7:1–6). It also accounts for the fact that so much of the biblical literature is really anonymous, though often included in books associated with the names of prominent figures.
Although more than half of the Psalms are related in their superscriptions to David, Asaph, or other musicians, many psalms have no superscription. Of the prophetic books, one that eloquently proclaims the Lord's purification of covenant worship is anonymous: "Malachi" simply means "my messenger" in Hebrew. Only later, in the Hellenistic period, did Hebrew thought come to see the arts and literature in terms of individual authorship. In the well-known passage beginning, "Let us now praise famous men" (Sir. 44:1), Jesus ben Sirach celebrates the achievement of "those who composed musical tunes, and set forth verses in writing" (Sir. 44:5). But the visual art of the early Christian movement, and most of its hymnody, are anonymous. From the biblical standpoint, individual creativity is not important, especially in the worship arts. Here the Christian artist is not making a statement of personal religious experience or calling attention to himself but is seeking to sum up the corporate experience of the church. When he or she expresses a personal faith, it is faith as practiced within the context of the community of faith.
The Numinous Aspect of the Arts
The biblical conception of God as holy has profound significance for the philosophy of the worship arts. The biblical worshiper encounters the Lord as the Holy One. The basic connotation of holiness (Hebrew qodesh) is not the goodness or righteousness of Yahweh but the fact that he is encountered as one "set apart," sacred or sacrosanct, unlike that which is experienced in the ordinary events of life. There is, in other words, a numinous aspect to the encounter with the Lord, a quality of mystery, dread, and fascination in his presence, which calls forth a spontaneous and intuitive response of worship. The rational mind cannot encompass his being, nor can human language adequately bear the majesty of his presence. Worship, like theology, must express itself through transforms of the experience of the holy, symbols that point beyond themselves to the reality reason alone cannot grasp.
It is here that the fine arts make their essential and distinctive contribution to the worship of Almighty God. Whether visual, auditory, literary, choreographic, or liturgical, art forms can augment the worshiper's sensitivity to the sacred in a way that common verbal communication cannot. Language, as a means of communication, depends on the premise that a symbol used by one speaker will be intelligible to another and therefore involves a rational process that issues in some kind of linear, conventional ordering of phonemes and thought units. Art forms, as well, require the application of rational processes in their creation and appreciation, but as a means of communication they operate at another level, touching the intuitive faculties of the human psyche. Art may be a window into unseen realities. The Last Supper fresco of Leonardo da Vinci is more of a humanistic tour de force of Renaissance technique than a vehicle for grasping the passion of Christ. By contrast, the roughly contemporaneous Last Supper of Tintoretto, its scene shading from the table of Christ and the disciples into the heavenly host, is a numinous window into the eternal truth "This is my body"; and the Isenheim Altarpiece of Grünewald, with its massive, distorted depiction of the crucified Christ, conveys with compelling force the weight of sin and suffering borne by the Savior.
The Bible is full of artistic creations, symbols fashioned or enacted by worshipers as expressions of that which cannot be encompassed by ordinary speech: the tabernacle and the temple, with their furnishings; the vesture of the priests; the ark of the covenant and its cherubim; the symbolic acts of liturgy and sacrifice; sacred gesture such as bowing down and lifting hands and festival processions; the many word symbols of covenant liturgy, hymn and psalm, prophetic song and vision, parable and preaching. The colors used in the Mosaic tabernacle and its priestly vesture are sometimes interpreted as prophetic, standing for some theological truth or concept; in fact, their "meaning" is to serve as artistic expressions of the numinous quality of the house of God. As an art form, even unintelligible speech, or speaking in tongues, conveys such a meaning in relationship to the presence of the holy and is not an ecstatic or emotional activity as some nonpractitioners suppose. The most numinous of the arts is music, which speaks most directly to the intuitive capacities of the worshiper, bearing a sense of majesty, wonder, mystery, and delight, and bringing a release of the soul even without recourse to words. It is well to recall, in this connection, how much of the Bible is poetry and song. God is not an idea but a reality encountered at the deepest level of being; from this perspective, art is not only permitted in biblical worship, it is mandatory.
